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Stationary Technologies

The stationary technologies competing the fuel cell stationary applications are mainly based on combustion (engines/gas turbines). UPS systems also use batteries. These are called conventional technologies which are more established than the fuel cell technologies today.

Market drivers of conventional stationary technologies

• The stationary power sets are mainly used for supplementing the ever increasing power demands in various sectors namely industrial, commercial and residential sector.
• Industrial customers include factories, mills, mines etc. They require additional power when their power requirement exceeds the available power at local power plant. The industrial customers located in areas with unreliable electricity grid require continuous power.
• Commercial sector includes hospitals, restaurants, financial institutions and the residential sector includes residential complexes etc.
• Stationary power is available as continuous power, peak power or stand-by power.
  • Continuous power is required for the customers located in areas with poor or without grid connections, as in case of some industrial customers.
  • Stand-by units are necessary in the applications where loss of power is critical, especially in commercial and residential sector: in hospitals, telecommunication infrastructure, residential areas etc. Multiple smaller stand-by units are preferred over a single large unit.
  • Peak power units can be used in both above cases but are relevant for low power range only.
• Cogeneration units (CHP) can only be built with continuous power applications. These units can be used in industry, hospitals, housings etc. The figure below illustrates the stationary power application share by power range.

Stationary Power application share by power range

Stationary power technology

Share of power ranges in global production (2007)

Stationary power units (generators) are available in different power ranges, commonly used ranges (>95% of sales) being 5 to 100 kW. Continuous growth can be seen in sales of all power ranges over the past decade. They have high production in the power ranges up to 100kW. In 2007 around 80% units were produced for the power output up to 20 kW. The share of different power ranges in the global production in year 2007 is illustrated in the figure to the left. The stationary power units can be powered by different fuels. Commonly used fuels are diesel, gasoline, natural gas, LPG and heavy oil. Following table shows the fuel type usage by region and power range. The table following that shows stationary power units produced using different fuels in different power ranges.

It can be seen that for lower power ranges gasoline is mostly used as a fuel to power the stationary power units. However diesel is an dominating fuel for all power ranges. Most of the units are produced to run on diesel. Natural gas is used in high power applications. Other fuels like LPG, heavy and dual fuel have much less share.

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Production by fuel type against power

Main industrial players

Main industrial players in stationary market

There are 15 main manufacturers in the global market of stationary power. They account for almost 60% of the global production. Caterpillar is the leading manufacturer with 13% of production share. Cummins is the second largest producer. The top few manufacturers and their production share is shown in the figure.

Impact of noise in diesel engines

Diesel engines used in gensets have significant noise emissions having an adverse effect on the local environment. The main sources of noise are: turbocharger, exhaust valves, fuel injection systems, emitted as airborne noise and vibrations in the engine feet. The noise limits for generators aboard cruise ships as decided by the International maritime organisation are tabulated below.

Noise emitted from the engine can be reduced by use of silencers, external insulation of scavenge air cooler and receiver, absorbing material at engine, use of optimised bearings. Ear protectors are recommended at the noise levels above 85 dB(A).

Main challenges to the stationary power industry

• With increasing amount of environmental pollution the emission standards are becoming more and more stringent. The production and operation of the power units should comply with these standards.
• In addition to the key market players there are many small and local manufacturers in the market. Thus there is an acute competition in the market concerning issues like price, delivery and service.
• The stationary power units have high installation cost. Since the national power grid supply is more or less reliable in most areas worldwide, customers do not invest easily in these units.
• Effective distribution is another challenge to this industry due to considerable geographical extent and range of applications.
• The stationary power market is at risk due to alternate cleaner energy sources such as fuel cells. These are currently under development.

Transport Technologies

Mobility is an essential human need: human survival and societal interaction depend on the ability to move people and goods. Transport activity is a key component of economic development and human welfare and is increasing around the world as economies grow.

Road Transport

This paragraph is to describe what could be the evolution of the powertrain technologies that will enhance the energy efficiency of conventional Diesel- or gasoline-fueled vehicles within the next two decades.

In the so-called "conventional" vehicle cited before, hybrid – which powertrain combines thermal engine and electric machine(s) – is also included. They will be referred to as "hybrid of first generation". The probable evolution of this first generation, like "plug-in hybrids" – vehicle that can be connected to the electrical grid for electric recharge – as well as hybrids fitted with additional devices to recover more energy than the first generation are also taken into account. They will be called "hybrids of second generation". In this category, in addition to plug-in vehicles, we also include for example powertrains using devices to convert a part of thermal lost energy from the combustion engine into supplementary work (e.g. Rankine cycle, thermoelectric device...)

Probable evolution of vehicle technology is not directly related to the powertrain and is not taken into account. Indeed, the enhancement of the vehicle will also be a benefit for the hydrogen fueled vehicle; then, they are not an add-on to conventional powertrains that will specifically only ameliorate conventional vehicles. In this category are for example included: reduction of vehicle mass, enhancement of vehicle aerodynamics, low friction tyres, low friction roller bearings for the wheels, increased market penetration of two-seat vehicles, etc.

The report will successively focus on the four classes of vehicle listed below:

• passenger car, gasoline and Diesel
• light duty trucks
• buses for public transport in urban areas
• heavy duty trucks and coaches for covering long distances

A comprehensive Well-to-Wheel analysis of different passenger cars drivetrain technologies has been created within a European study by EUCAR, CONCAWE and JRC, last updated in March 2007. An interactive front-end is available on the website of Daimler AG, here.

Maritime Transport

Ships are conventionally powered by fossil fuels, which are widely available. As prices rise, the search for new fuels and ways of saving the conventional fuels has begun. Various new options for the ship propulsion are undergoing development.

One of the options is using the wind energy which is abundantly available on seas. It is a cheap source of renewable energy which can be used to propel ships. SkySail has developed a system which uses wind energy available at high seas as auxiliary propulsion power to propel the ships parallel to the engine. Recently the system was tested with a cargo ship sailing from Germany to Venezuela.

The SkySail system includes three main components: a towing kite with rope, a launch and recovery system and a control system. Additionally a security system and optional weather routing system is also included. The components and principle of the kite system is shown in the figure below.

The SkySail Wind Propulsion System

The towing kite with rope: The towing kite, made of high strength textiles, has shape similar to a paraglide. It is double walled which gives it similar aerodynamic properties as an aircraft wing. Currently the kites with areas of approximately 150 – 600 m2 are available. This system can operate at courses of up to 50° to the wind in addition to the downwind direction. High propulsion power can be obtained from courses above 70°. The system is most efficient between the courses of 120° to 140°. The efficiency of the kite depends on wind and weather conditions. The tractive force imparted by the wind to the kite is transferred to the ship through the towing rope. The towing rope is connected to the foredeck of the ship.

Launching and recovery system: Launching and recovery of the kite is done automatically. For the launch a telescopic mast lifts the kite. At sufficient height the kite fully opens. The towing rope is supplied till the kite reaches its operating height. Recovery is done in reverse way.

Steering system: Steering of the kite is done automatically by using a control pod and a control system. Control pod links the kite and the rope. It changes the aerodynamic shape of the kite by mechanical and electronic control elements and thus controls the flight of the kite. The control system functions as an autopilot. It collects the data via sensors and processes it in autopilot software. Then it sends the control commands to the control pod.

Some properties of the system are listed below:

• The SkySail system generates higher propulsion power compared to the conventional sail propulsion. The system operates at heights of 100 to 300m from surface where winds are more powerful and stable.
• This system causes a small amount of healing. The traction force is transmitted to the ship at deck level. Thus the length of the lever arm that causes inclination of the ship is reduced which in turn reducing healing.
• The towing kite can be navigated dynamically by the autopilot system. For example in case of strong winds the kite can be positioned directly above the ship so that it does not exert any towing force on the ship.
• The system is used in parallel to the main engine. Thus engine power is totally available when required. The Skysail system helps reducing the fuel consumption and thus can reduce the annual fuel costs by 10 – 35 %. This in turn reduces the emissions.
• This system requires less space compared to the conventional sails and masts. The kite also requires less space when folded. Thus there is no obstruction to loading and unloading operations.
• The kite system can be used as an emergency propulsion in case of engine malfunction.

Rail Transport

When a vehicle breaks energy is released which is normally lost. Flywheel can be used to store this energy, but it has some disadvantages such as high weight, low peak power, high maintenance etc.

Bombardier has developed a technology, Mitrac Energy Saver, which is based on ultracapacitors. This unit can be used in light rail vehicles or trams. This unit consists of several hundred high performance storage cells connected in series. It can be placed on the top of the tram. When the vehicle breaks the unit is charged and when the vehicle starts again the unit is discharged to provide required power for acceleration. Thus about 30% of energy is saved compared to the trams without the energy saver unit. This unit also allows frequent starting and breaking of the vehicle.

Mitrac Energy Saver

The energy saver unit can also be useful in the sections of roads without electric power, in cases such as power cut-off or on-going maintenance work. The train can reach the next stop by using the stored energy.

The Mitrac Energy Saver unit can also be used in the trains using diesel power pack. The energy saver unit supplies power in peak loads whereas the diesel generator is used only for basic loads. This helps in saving the energy up to 40 % and in reducing the emissios.

Possible layout of hybrid light rail vehicle